The History of Cambodia

The sacred Phnom Kulen mountain, located just north of present-day Siem Reap, has garnered significant interest from archaeologists due to a recent mapping initiative that has uncovered the fabled ancient royal capital of Mahendraparvata. Often regarded as the origin of the Khmer Empire, inscriptions found on the mountain recount the declaration of Jayavarman II, who proclaimed himself a ‘universal monarch’ in the year 802. He was the first in a line of rulers who presided over this illustrious era of Khmer civilization. Notably, this period is renowned for the construction of Angkor Wat in the early 12th century, along with the numerous temples that surround it. Equally remarkable, and crucial for the temples’ construction, was the management of the Kingdom’s waterways through extensive irrigation systems that not only bolstered agricultural production but also contributed to the structural integrity of the temples. This era is still regarded as the cradle of many cultures, languages, and traditions throughout the region.

Following the passing of Jayavarman VII, who oversaw the construction of Ta Prohm, Angkor Thom, and Bayon, the Khmer Empire entered a phase of decline that culminated in a successful invasion by the Thai in 1431. The subsequent four centuries are often characterized as the “dark ages” of Cambodia, during which its neighboring countries, Siam and Vietnam, vied for control over the territory.

It is challenging to determine whether King Norodom, who ruled from 1860 to 1904, explicitly “requested” that Cambodia become a French protectorate in 1867, as his sentiments may have been swayed by the presence of French naval forces in the region. Nevertheless, this agreement significantly contributed to the restoration of Cambodia as an independent kingdom and helped to safeguard it from being entirely fragmented and absorbed by neighboring states. The French influence in Cambodia initiated numerous political transformations, including the abolition of slavery, and attracted considerable international interest, particularly through the “discovery” of the Angkor temples. However, there was also notable resistance to French rule, which manifested in active rebellions during the late 19th century, as well as in various academic and political movements in the 1940s.

World War II significantly heightened instability across the region, with the Japanese forces at one point occupying Cambodia. King Sihanouk, who reigned from 1941 to 1955 and again from 1993 to 2004, found himself in a delicate situation as he sought to negotiate for the country’s independence while also safeguarding it from the escalating tensions between the United States and Vietnam. Numerous analyses have been conducted regarding Sihanouk’s political strategies during this period; notably, in 1952, he dismissed his cabinet, suspended the constitution, and took control of the government, implementing martial law. However, the intricacies of the situation make it challenging to determine, even in hindsight, what actions would have best ensured the safety of Cambodia and its citizens. Ultimately, Sihanouk succeeded in achieving full independence for Cambodia in 1953.

Sihanouk endeavored to uphold Cambodia’s international neutrality during the tumultuous era of the Vietnam War; however, some argue that this effort led to his downfall domestically. Throughout the 1960s, political instability escalated in Cambodia, culminating in Sihanouk’s ousting by Lon Nol in 1970. The administration of Lon Nol, however, proved to be catastrophic, resulting in a Vietnamese invasion, a civil war, and prompting the United States to conduct extensive bombing campaigns across the nation. This turmoil increased support for the newly established Khmer Rouge, which seized control of Phnom Penh on April 17, 1975. Initially hailed by the populace as liberators from American and Vietnamese forces, the initial excitement surrounding the Khmer Rouge’s triumph quickly dissipated. Within hours, Khmer Rouge troops forcibly evacuated the entire city of Phnom Penh, leading residents on enforced marches into rural areas. This separation of families—parents from children, spouses from one another, and siblings from each other—was part of the Khmer Rouge’s imposition of a harsh agrarian peasant society, which obliterated familial values in favor of allegiance to the “Ongkar” or the party. The era was designated as year zero, currency was abolished, and the nation was isolated from all international communication and influence. Thus, a new and tragic chapter in Cambodian history commenced.

During the duration of the Khmer Rouge regime, which lasted for 3 years, 8 months, and 20 days, it is estimated that approximately 2 million individuals lost their lives, representing about a quarter of Cambodia’s total population. A significant number of these victims were ordinary farmers who succumbed to starvation, excessive labor, or untreated illnesses, as the Khmer Rouge largely dismissed conventional medical practices. Furthermore, numerous individuals were executed in areas now referred to as the Killing Fields. Those suspected of having ties to the former government were often killed without any form of trial, resulting in the decimation or exodus of the educated populace.

Despite Pol Pot’s authority over the Khmer Rouge, his control was never entirely secure, plagued by internal conflicts and deep-seated paranoia. The deterioration of relations with Vietnam ultimately culminated in a Vietnamese invasion, which was supported by many disillusioned former members of the Khmer Rouge. In January 1979, Phnom Penh fell, leading to the collapse of the Khmer Rouge and allowing a beleaguered population to gradually return to their homes, strive for survival, and begin the process of rebuilding their lives.

Although the Khmer Rouge was effectively ousted from power in 1979, they continued to be recognized by the international community as the legitimate government of Cambodia until the 1990s, even maintaining a seat at the United Nations. This era remained challenging for Cambodia, as conflict persisted throughout the nation, with the Khmer Rouge continuing their efforts to regain authority.

In 1991, the United Nations was granted the mandate to oversee a ceasefire in Cambodia and facilitate the establishment of free and fair elections. These elections ultimately occurred in May 1993, although the degree to which they were genuinely “free and fair” remains a subject of contention. The Cambodian People’s Party, led by Hun Sen, finished second in the electoral results; however, through a coalition arrangement with the FUNCINPEC party, which was headed by Prince Ranariddh and emerged victorious, Hun Sen secured significant political power as he was appointed Prime Minister, while the Prince, despite being elevated to a royal position, found himself politically marginalized.

Since then, Hun Sen has maintained a stronghold over Cambodian politics, with many Khmer citizens viewing him as a protector of the nation, credited with liberating the country from the Khmer Rouge, fostering national unity, and attracting foreign investment and economic growth. Conversely, he faces substantial criticism, particularly from the international community, regarding his human rights record and the pervasive corruption within the Cambodian government.

Regarding Cambodia’s recovery, progress remains gradual for many individuals in rural regions. While urban centers like Phnom Penh and Siem Reap are experiencing significant investment and development, the majority of the population, approximately 80%, who rely on rice farming, do not share in this prosperity. Although there have been improvements in basic infrastructure, such as roads, educational facilities, and healthcare centers, many Cambodians continue to struggle to achieve a living wage, complete their education, and remain highly susceptible to preventable and treatable illnesses.

Significant attention has been directed towards the youth of Cambodia, who constitute 50% of the population born after the Khmer Rouge regime. Unlike their predecessors, this generation has benefited from access to education and has been influenced by global trends due to advancements in mobile and internet technologies. Nevertheless, many individuals from the older generation remain understandably apprehensive about change, and a dominant political figure continues to maintain a tight control over the nation. Consequently, the historical legacy poses a substantial challenge to Cambodia’s progress. Nonetheless, there is reason for optimism; the burgeoning start-up ecosystem, enthusiasm surrounding ASEAN integration in 2015, and a strong sense of Khmer identity suggest that this young generation may pave the way for a brighter future for Cambodia.